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The Berlin
Conference was Africa's undoing in more ways than one. The colonial powers
superimposed their domains on the African continent. By the time independence
returned to Africa in 1950, the realm had acquired a legacy of political
fragmentation that could neither be eliminated nor made to operate
satisfactorily. (de Blij,
p.340)
In 1884 at the request of Portugal,
German chancellor Otto von Bismarck called together the major western powers of
the world to negotiate questions and end confusion over the control of Africa.
Bismarck appreciated the opportunity to expand Germany's sphere of influence over
Africa and desired to force Germany's rivals to struggle with one another for
territory.
At the time of the conference, 80% of
Africa remained under traditional and local control. What ultimately resulted
was a hodgepodge of geometric boundaries that divided Africa into fifty
irregular countries. This new map of the continent was superimposed over the one
thousand indigenous cultures and regions of Africa. The new countries lacked
rhyme or reason and divided coherent groups of people and merged together
disparate groups who really did not get along.
Fourteen countries were represented
by a plethora of ambassadors when the conference opened in Berlin on November
15, 1884. The countries represented at the time included Austria-Hungary,
Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands,
Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden-Norway (unified from 1814-1905), Turkey, and the
United States of America. Of these fourteen nations, France, Germany, Great
Britain, and Portugal were the major players in the conference, controlling most
of colonial Africa at the time.
The initial task of the conference
was to agree that the Congo River and Niger River mouths and basins would be
considered neutral and open to trade. Despite its neutrality, part of the Congo
Basin became a personal kingdom for Belgium's King Leopold II and under his
rule, over half of the region's population died.
At the time of the conference, only
the coastal areas of Africa were colonized by the European powers. At the Berlin
Conference the European colonial powers scrambled to gain control over the
interior of the continent. The conference lasted until February 26, 1885 - a
three month period where colonial powers haggled over geometric boundaries in
the interior of the continent, disregarding the cultural and linguistic
boundaries already established by the indigenous African population.
The Berlin conference managed to form
a set of rules for the “orderly extension of European influence” in Africa.
First, the fourteen nations agreed there would be freedom of trade and
navigation in the Congo Basin. Second, they agreed that any power that annexed
territory or established a protectorate from that day forward would let every
other country know immediately. At the same time, that country was responsible
for establishing political stability, thereby guaranteeing effective occupation
of those regions. They also agreed to put a stop to the slave trade, that “these
territories may not serve as a market or means of transit for the trade in
slaves, of whatever race they may be”
Following the conference, the give
and take continued. By 1914, the conference participants had fully divided
Africa among themselves into fifty countries.
Major colonial holdings included:
•
Great Britain desired a Cape-to-Cairo collection of colonies and almost
succeeded though their control of Egypt, Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian Sudan), Uganda,
Kenya (British East Africa), South Africa, and Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Botswana
(Rhodesia). The British also controlled Nigeria and Ghana (Gold Coast).
•
France took much of western Africa, from Mauritania to Chad (French West
Africa) and Gabon and the Republic of Congo (French Equatorial Africa).
•
Belgium and King Leopold II controlled the Democratic Republic of Congo
(Belgian Congo).
•
Portugal took Mozambique in the east and Angola in the west.
•
Italy's holdings were Somalia (Italian Somaliland) and a portion of Ethiopia.
•
Germany took Namibia (German Southwest Africa) and Tanzania (German East
Africa).
•
Spain claimed the smallest territory - Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni).
de Blij, H.J. and
Peter O. Muller Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1997.
The National Geographic Desk Reference. National Geographic, 1999.
Because of its size, surface
features, climate, resources, and strategic importance, Africa became a prime
candidate for conquest by ambitious European empires. Although Africa is
physically remote from the power centers of Europe, North America, and Asia, it
is surrounded by water and can therefore be reached easily from the other
continents. This meant that the Europeans needed to establish rules for dealing
with one another if they were to avoid constant bloodshed and competition for
African resources. The Berlin Conference established those ground rules.
By the mid-nineteenth century,
Europeans had established colonies all along the African coast and competed for
control. The push for overseas territories was made even more intense by the
Industrial Revolution and the need for cheap labor, raw material, and new
markets. The competition between the Europeans often lead to violent conflict.
The conference was held in Berlin
between November 15, 1884 and November 26, 1885, under the leadership of German
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Although controlling the slave trade and promoting
humanitarian idealism were promoted as the focus of the conference, the
conference only passed empty resolutions about the ending of slave trade and
providing for the welfare of Africa. In truth, the result of the Conference was
a method of dividing the continent of Africa between the European powers.
Article 34 of the Berlin Act states
that any European nation that took possession of an African coast, or named
themselves as “protectorate” of one, had to inform the other powers of the
Berlin Act of this action. If this was not done then their claim would not be
recognized. This article introduced the “spheres of influence” doctrine, the
control of a coast also meant that they would control the hinterland to an
almost unlimited distance.
Article 35 determined that in order
to occupy a coastal possession, the nation also had to prove that they
controlled sufficient authority there to protect existing rights such as freedom
of trade and transit. This was called the doctrine of “effective occupation” and
it made the conquest of Africa a less bloody process.
The Berlin Act was an important
change in international affairs. It created the rules for “effective occupation”
of conquered lands, ensuring that the division of Africa would take place
without war among the European powers. Through the Berlin Act, the European
powers justified dividing a continent among themselves without considering the
desires of the indigenous peoples.
While this appears extremely arrogant
to us now, it seemed to them to be the obvious extension of their imperialism.
The Berlin Conference is one of the most clear examples of the assumptions and
preconceptions of this era, and its effects on Africa can still be seen today. |